Quotation: "Buddhism has the characteristics of what would be expected in a
cosmic religion for the future: it transcends a personal God, avoids dogmas and
theology; it covers both the natural & spiritual, and it is based on a religious
sense aspiring from the experience of all things, natural and spiritual,
as a meaningful unity" Albert Einstein Core beliefs of Buddhism:      

    
Buddhism, like most of the great religions of the world,
is divided into a number of different traditions.
However, most traditions share a common set of fundamental beliefs.

One fundamental belief involves reincarnation: the concept that one must go through many cycles of birth, living, and death. After many such cycles, if a person releases their attachment to desire and the self, they can attain Nirvana  - a state of liberation and freedom from suffering.

The Three Trainings or Practices:

These three consist of:

1)  Sila: Virtue, good conduct, morality. This is based on two fundamental principles:

            The principle of equality: that all living entities are equal.

The principle of reciprocity: This is the "Golden Rule" in Christianity -- to do onto others as you would wish them do onto you. It is found in all major religions.

2)  Samadhi: Concentration, meditation, mental development. Developing one's mind is the path to wisdom which in turn leads to personal freedom. Mental development also strengthens and controls our mind; this helps us maintain good conduct.

3)  Prajna: Discernment, insight, wisdom, enlightenment. This is the real heart of Buddhism. Wisdom will emerge if your mind is pure and calm.

The first two paths listed in the Eightfold Path, described below, refer to discernment; the last three belong to concentration; the middle three are related to virtue.

The Four Noble Truths:

The Buddha's Four Noble Truths explore human suffering. They may be described (somewhat simplistically) as:

1)  Dukkha: The reality and universality of suffering. Suffering has many causes: loss, sickness, pain, failure, the impermanence of pleasure.

2)  Samudaya: The cause of suffering is a desire to have and control things. It can take many forms: craving of sensual pleasures; the desire for fame; the desire to avoid unpleasant sensations, like fear, anger or jealousy.

3)  Nirodha: Suffering ceases with the final liberation of Nirvana (a.k.a. Nibbana). The mind experiences complete freedom, liberation and non-attachment. It lets go of any desire or craving.

4)  Magga: The eightfold path leads to the cessation of suffering.

The Five Precepts:

These are rules to live by. They are somewhat analogous to the second half of the Ten Commandments in Judaism and Christianity -- that part of the Decalogue which describes behaviors to avoid.

1)  Do not kill. This is sometimes translated as "not harming" or an absence of violence.

2)  Do not steal. This is generally interpreted as including the avoidance of fraud and economic exploitation.

3) Do not lie. This is sometimes interpreted as including name calling, gossip, etc.

4)  Do not misuse sex. For monks and nuns, this means any departure from complete celibacy. For the laity, adultery is forbidden, along with any sexual harassment or exploitation, including that within marriage. The Buddha did not discuss consensual premarital sex within a committed relationship; Buddhist traditions differ on this.

5)  Do not consume alcohol or other drugs. The main concern here is that intoxicants cloud the mind. Some have included as a drug other methods of divorcing ourselves from reality -- e.g. movies, television, the Internet.

The Eightfold Path:

The Buddha's Eightfold Path consists of:
●  Panna: Discernment, wisdom:
      1) Samma ditthi Right Understanding of the Four Noble Truths
      2) Samma sankappa: Right thinking; following the right path in life
●  Sila: Virtue, morality:
      1) Samma vaca: Right speech: no lying, criticism, condemning, gossip, harsh language
      2) Samma kammanta Right conduct by following the Five Precepts
      3) Samma ajiva: Right livelihood; support yourself without harming others
●  Samadhi: Concentration, meditation:
      1) Samma vayama Right Effort: promote good thoughts; conquer evil thoughts
      2) Samma sati Right Mindfulness: Become aware of your body, mind and feelings
      3) Samma samadhi Right Concentration: Meditate to achieve a higher state of consciousness

Buddhism is the fourth largest religion in the world, being exceeded in numbers only by Christianity, Islam and Hinduism. It was founded in Northern India by the Buddha, Siddhartha Gautama. In 535 BC, he attained enlightenment and assumed the title Lord Buddha (one who has awakened)

As Buddhism expanded across Asia, it evolved into two main forms, which evolved largely independently from each other:

Theravada Buddhism (sometimes called Southern Buddhism; occasionally spelled Therevada) "has been the dominant school of Buddhism in most of Southeast Asia since the thirteenth century, with the establishment of the monarchies in Thailand, Burma, Cambodia and Laos."

Mahayana Buddhism (sometimes called Northern Buddhism) is largely found in China, Japan, Korea, Tibet and Mongolia

 Note: Little is known about the Buddha's early life. No biography was written during his lifetime. Only isolated events from his life before he attained enlightenment were preserved. Some of the following is probably mythical in nature.

The birth of the Buddha:

He was born a prince circa 563 BC in Lumbinī in the Terai lowlands near the foothills of the Himalayas. At the time, this was part of northern India. It is now part of Nepal, a small country located between India and Tibet. He was a member of the Śãkyas clan. His father, Suddhodana, was king of the clan. His mother was named Maya.

In common with many other great religious leaders, many miraculous stories were associated with his birth. He emerged from his mother's side without causing her any pain. The earth shook. As a newborn, he was miraculously showered with water. He stood up, took seven steps, announced that he would be the "chief of the world." He also stated that this would be his last reincarnation.

He was given the name Siddhãrtha Gautama.  Siddhãrtha means "one who has achieved his aim." Gautama was his clan name. He was sometimes referred to as Śãkyamuni which means "the sage of the Śãkyas."

He may have been born into the second of the four Indian castes -- the aristocratic warrior caste called Kşatriyas. His father was an Indian ruler. 

His early life in the palace:

Śãkyamuni was raised as a Hindu. His parents assumed that he would succeed his father later in his life. His parents were concerned about a prophecy that astrologers gave at the time of his birth. They predicted that he would become either a universal monarch or a monk who would be a great religious teacher. His parents raised him in a state of luxury in the hope that he would become attached to earthly things and to pleasure. This would make it less likely that he choose the religious life.

At the age of 16, he was married to his wife Yaśodharã. When he was 29, his wife had a son, Rãhula. Shortly after his son's birth, some sources say that he took four journeys by chariot. Other sources say he had four visions. During the first trip/vision he was deeply disturbed by seeing an elderly, helpless, frail man. On the second, he saw an emaciated and depressed man suffering from an advanced disease. On the third, he spotted a grieving family carrying the corpse of one of their own to a cremation site. He reflected deeply upon the suffering brought about by old age, illness and death. On his fourth trip/vision, he saw a religious mendicant -- a śramaņa -- who led a reclusive life of meditation, and was calm and serene. The four encounters motivated him to follow the path of the mendicant and find a spiritual solution to the problems brought about by human suffering.

He left his wife, child, luxurious lifestyle, and future role as a leader of his people in order to seek truth. It was an accepted practice at the time for some men to leave their family and lead the life of an ascetic.

Seeking the solution to human suffering:

He first tried meditation, which he learned from two teachers. He felt that these were valuable skills. However, meditation could not be extended forever, He eventually had to return to normal waking consciousness and face the unsolved problems relating to birth, sickness, old age and death.

He then joined a group of similarly-minded students of Brahmanism in a forest where he practiced breath control and fasted severely for six years. He is said to have brought himself to the brink of death by only eating a few grains of rice each day. Some sources say that he consumed only a spoonful of bean soup per day. This technique produced a series of physical discomforts. Ultimately, he rejected this path as well. He realized that neither the extremes of the mortification of the flesh or of hedonism would lead to enlightenment. He determined that a better path to achieve the state of Nirvana -- a state of liberation and freedom from suffering -- was to pursue a "Middle Way." This way was largely defined by moderation and meditation.

Attaining enlightenment:

One night In 535 BC, at the age of 35, he was seated underneath a large tree -- later known as the Bodhi tree (species Pipal or ficus religiosus). He began to experience some major breakthroughs:

            During the first watch of the night, he developed the ability to recall the events of his previous reincarnations in detail.

            During the second watch, he was able to see how the good and bad deeds that many living entities performed during their lifetimes led to their subsequent reincarnation into their next life.

            During the third watch, he learned that he had progressed beyond "spiritual defilements," craving, desire, hatred, hunger, thirst, exhaustion, fear, doubt, and delusions. He had attained nirvana. He would never again be reincarnated into a future life.

He had attained enlightenment! "He became a savior, deliverer, and redeemer."

 The events under the Bodhi tree are often described in mythological terms in Buddhist literature and art. His experiences are portrayed as a battle with Mãra, the Buddhist equivalent of the Judeo-Christian-Islamic Satan.

After the Bodhi tree:

He assumed the title Lord Buddha (one who has awakened; the one who has attained enlightenment by himself). For seven days, he puzzled over his future: whether to withdraw from the world and live a life of seclusion, or whether to reenter the world and teach his Middle Way. He decided on the latter course: to proclaim his Dharma (teachings) to other humans so that they could also attain enlightenment.

He located five of his fellow seekers with whom he had earlier fasted, and rejoined them near Benares. They quickly became aware of the changes brought about by his enlightenment. It was to them that he preached his first sermon. It contained the essential teachings of Buddhism. All five accepted his teachings and were ordained as monks. After the Buddha's second sermon, all five achieved enlightenment. They are referred to as Arhants (saints).

The Buddha's later life:

He wandered around Northeast India for decades, teaching all who would listen. He covered a "territory some 150 miles long by 250 miles wide, an area somewhat smaller than Ireland or the state of Pennsylvania."  He had tens of thousands of disciples and accumulated a large public following. He later established an order of monks and a corresponding order of nuns. His wife Yaśodharã became the first nun.

His health began to fail when he was in this late 70s. After forty-five years of teaching, he died in a small town named Kuśinagara, apparently of natural causes. His final words were: "Decay is inherent in all things. Be sure to strive with clarity of mind" for Nirvana. The traditional date of his death is 483 BC. However, some recent research indicates that he actually died circa 405 BC.

He did not choose a successor. He felt that the Dharma -- his teachings -- plus the Vinaya -- his code of rules for the monks and nuns -- would be a sufficient guide. Two and a half centuries later, a council of Buddhist monks collected his teachings and the oral traditions of the faith into written form, called the Tripitaka. This included a very large collection of commentaries and traditions; most are called Sutras (discourses).

Reference:   http://www.religioustolerance.org/buddhism.htm

1.      Helen Dukas & Banesh Hoffman, Eds., "Albert Einstein: The Human Side," Princeton University Press, (1954)

2.      "Gandhara, Pakistan," Biblical Archeology Review, 2004-MAY/JUN, Page 64.

3.      André Vellino "About Buddhism," at: http://www.ncf.carleton.ca/

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